|
For the barrier to succeed
$100,000 will be needed immediately to start a pilot project
in Chiapas, Mexico.
The Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service (APHIS), has recommended an $8 million plan
to stop the Africanized Honey Bee (AHB) in Chiapas, Mexico. A
meeting of scientists, apiary inspectors and APHIS personnel
took place September 23 in Hyattsville, MD to discuss the merits
of the plan as outlined below. If the plan is feasible, then
APHIS will be seeking the additional funds to carry out the project
as soon as possible. The AHB is now in Guatemala and may soon
cross over the border into Mexico if this hasn't already occurred.
Beckeepers who believe the plan will work are urged to contact
their congressmen to urge support of the plan monetarily. Experts
believe that the AHB will reach the site of the planned barrier
within 18 months.
During the meeting total man-power and equipment expenditures
were briefly outlined to give those attending an idea of what
the proposed $8 million would be used for. There would be a total
of 88 stations located along the barrier zone. Each station would
contain 44 apiaries of 4-20 colonies spaced at 3 kilometer distances.
Also, each station would have 177 drone traps spaced 1.5 kilometers
apart. Approximately 1600 bait stations would he established.
Each unit would need a supervisor, identifier, control workers,
2-3 vehicles and a control worksite to perform identification
work. Each worker would be required to: Check 4.3 apiaries per
month; 17.3 drone traps periodically every day and 156.4 bait
stations every two weeks. Total figures for the project are:
3,872 apiaries; 38,700 colonies; 15,500 drone traps; 141,000
bait stations and hives; 1,114 unskilled employees; 220 vehicles;
88 remote work sites and 1 central headquarters. Additional activities
of the group would include: Swarm trapping; requeening and equipment
moderization; trapping AHB drones and intensive production of
European drones at queen production sites; establishing an ARS
research laboratory in Yucatan and establishing a Mexican research
laboratory in Chiapas.
Long-term genetic solutions include ideas such as introducing
an east African strain of honey bee known Apis mellifera monticola
which never has interbred with the Apis mellifera andansonii.
For the barrier to succeed $100,000 will be needed immediately
to start a pilot project. Genetic control is at least 5 years
away if the project is started now. APHIS officials realize that
the barrier is not a solution in itself, but it may buy time
so that needed research can be completed to provide a long-term
genetic solution. The barrier will have to be considered a combination
Mexican-American project, even though the Mexicans will not provide
any of the funds. For the Mexicans the problem will be immediate
and so they will have to concentrate on providing health and
public safety solutions with control or elimination being a second
priority. Congress and the American people must be made to understand
that the Africanized Honey Bee problem probably will not be only
a southern states concern, but may very well encompass the rest
of the United States and Canada. More recent research indicates
the AHB has a far greater tolerance for cold climates than originally
thought.
Our thanks are extended to Eugene Killion, supervisor of the
Illinois apiary Inspection Service, for providing notes for this
article.
A. BACKGROUND
A team of ARS research leaders was called together in Beltsville,
MD on March 17, 1986 by Dr. J. E. Wright, NPS. The purpose of
the meeting was to review ARS research leading to the development
of a barrier against Africanized bees (AB). The term "barrier"
as used by the group refers to a Bee Regulated Zone (BRZ) with
appropriate actions that ultimately could prevent the spread
of Africanized bees.
It is expected that the AB will be arriving in Mexico in 1986
or 1987 and in the U.S. perhaps as early as 1989 or 1990. The
impact of the AB on
agriculture and public safety has been well-documented. This
report is intended to present APHIS with strategies that could
be implemented immediately in Mexico. Although there can be no
a priori guarantee that AB can be stopped, the team agreed that
an AB regulated zone should be established in Mexico. It is the
recommendation of this team that this barrier be established
immediately in the state of Chiapas, Mexico.
B. CURRENT TECHNOLOGY SUPPORTING BARRIER DEVELOPMENT
1. Identification of Africanized
Bees for Survey and Detection.
Two methods are presently being utilized for the identification
of AB based on morphometrics. They are a laboratory procedure
requiring 26 separate measurements and a field procedure using
comb measurements and FABIS (forewing and weight measurements).
FABIS is quick and simple and correctly identifies the large
majority of European and AB samples.
2. Drone Trapping
An artificial queen pheromone source is placed in a cone-shaped
net nine or ten meters above the underlying vegetation. The queen
pheromone attracts large numbers of drones into such traps in
Africanized areas. Drone trapping has greatly reduced the reproductive
potential of AB.
3. Drone Flooding
Colonies prepared specifically to rear large numbers of European
drones were shown to effectively increase the mating of European
queens with European drones in an Africanized area. The normal
production of drones by all managed colonies can be significantly
increased by the introduction of frames of drone foundation.
4. Bait Hives
Bait hives, having the scent of recently occupied nests, low
internal temperatures (use of insulation and shade), and at least
40 liters of internal volume have had excellent success in attracting
swarms. The efficacy of these bait hives are enhanced by the
high swarming rate of AB especially during the swarming season
when such swarms are thought to travel short distances.
5. Bait Stations
Bait stations combining an attractant and food source can be
used to attract foragers from colonies in the surrounding area
for sampling bees. If AB are collected, bait stations could be
used in conjunction with short-lived insecticides or chitin inhibitors
to destroy feral colonies especially during dearth periods.
6. Human Resources
Some person or office can be designated in each local area to
monitor and receive reports of swarms. Project personnel would
collect samples for identification, destroy the swarm and pay
a bounty.
7. Quarantine
A quarantine can prevent
the movement and managed colonies out of Africanized areas. Additional
vigilance would be necessary to locate and destroy swarms "hitchhiking"
on vehicles and to prevent deliberate transport of honey bees
from the BRZ.
8. Chemicals
Several chemicals that have been studied have a potential to
support the barrier technology. Carbaryl and ResmethrinR are
both registered by the EPA for killing honey bees. Since both
materials have residual toxicity they should not be used for
bees on hive equipment.
C. CURRENT RESEARCH THRUSTS
1. Identification Methods
A number of researchers and laboratories are pursuing improvement
of existing techniques and the development of alternative methods
for identification of AB. Classical morphometrics, cuticular
hydrocarbons, nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, hemolymph proteins,
antennal sensillae, isozymes, venom components and alarm pheromone
components are all subjects of ongoing work.
2. Drone Trapping
Drone trap design improvement for traps that automatically kill
drones and do not require individual attention are being developed.
Additionally, studies are being conducted on trap placement with
regard to spacing and height as well as optimum concentration
and delivery system for the pheromone.
3. Drone Flooding
Current research on
drone flooding is being focused on developing guidelines for
queen producers to allow successful matings with desirable drones
in Africanized areas. This includes studies on the number of
drones required, placement of drone source colonies, mating flight
patterns and the drone production potential of feral colonies.
4. Bait Hives
Basic research on bait hives can be considered completed. However,
opportunities exist for improvement in design and placement as
well as methods to minimize the maintenance of bait hives.
5. Bait Stations
Functional bait stations
have been developed that readily attract foragers. Assessment
of the distance such stations are effective and recommendations
for their dispersal in a sampling grid are underway.
6. Control of Parasitizing
Queens
A central characteristic
of the Africanization process is the parasitism of functionally
or pheromonally queenless colonies by Africanized queens accompanied
by tiny swarms. By determining how African queens are attracted
to such colonies and developing queen traps, it would be possible
to reduce this parasitism.
7. Drone Congregation Areas
The easy identification
of leks (drone congregation areas), would facilitate drone trapping
and drone flooding techniques. Approaches to finding congregation
areas with energy sources of various types such as radar are
underway.
8. Behavioral Modification by Genetics
Estimates of heritability and both phenotypic
and genotypic correlations among characteristics have been calculated
for a wide variety of traits including differences in honey production,
defensive behavior, population dynamics, reproductive parasitism,
etc. Selection for the important characteristics of defensive
behavior and honey production confirms the long-term usefulness
of this approach.
9. Behavioral Modification by Management
Management procedures to solve several problems caused by AB
are in various stages of completion. Techniques to improve honey
production using supplemental feeding and appropriate behavioral
stimulation have been developed. Excessive swarming of AB has
been shown to be controllable as well as a possible reduction
of defensive behavior by alarm pheromone habitation.
D. RESEARCH NEEDS FOR BEE BARRIER DEVELOPMENT (In Priority
Order)
1. Drone Trapping
(Refer to C.2 and C.7)
2. Drone Flooding
(Refer to C.3)
3a.* Bait Hives
(Refer to C.4)
3b.* Inter- and Intra-Specific
Competition
The potential exists for employing other species of Apis or
subspecies of A. mellifera to out compete AB either genetically
or behaviorally (e.g. competition for resources or via mating
advantage). The most promising candidate identified thus far
is the subspecies A. m. monticola which needs to be studied
as indicated here.
1) Conduct surveys to gather base line biological data on A.
m. monticola in Africa (1986).
2) In Africa, conduct phenotypic response studies following reciprocal
translocation with A. m. scutellata and A. rn. monticola.
In addition, conduct surveys on the diseases and parasites
of A. m. monticola (1986-1987).
3) Export selected phenotypes to West Germany for propagation
and further stock evaluation (1987-1988).
4) Conduct island experiments in the New World for intraspecific
competition studies (1988-1989)
5) Introduce A. m. monticola in Mexico either in front
of and/or behind the BRZ (1989-1990).
3c.* Africanized Bee Identification
Methods for identifying Africanized
drones and queens should be developed. (Refer also to C.1)
4a.** Diseases
and Parasites
Diseases and parasites may
he useful in the destruction of AB in bait hives or extant in
the BRZ. Diseases may be venereal (eg. render the queen sterile)
and spread by drones infected in special hives, placed in baited
hives and lethal to adult bees, pupae, larvae or eggs, or applied
as biological insecticides in the regulated zone. Similarly,
parasites, for example Mellitobia acasta, known to infest
queen pupae should be evaluated.
4b.** Bait Stations
Factors influencing the efficacy
of feeding stations should be evaluated. These stations would
be charged with a chemical, disease or parasite that could be
carried back to the hive where it would weaken, reduce the reproductive
capacity or kill AB swarms. (Refer also to C.4)
5. Queen Replacement
Improved methods to mark, locate and replace queens must be developed.
One of the barrier strategies is replacement of queens in colonies
that have become Africanized.
|
PROPOSED AFRICANIZED
BEE BARRIER SCHEDULE1 |
| |
Month
|
|
Surplus forage |
Jan
- |
Feb
- |
Mar
+ |
Apr
+ |
May
+ |
Jun
+ |
Jul
+ |
Aug
- |
Sep
+ |
Oct
+ |
Nov
- |
Dec
- |
| Composite
samples from net or |
- |
- |
± |
+ |
+ |
+ |
± |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
bait stations |
+ |
+ |
± |
- |
- |
- |
± |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
| Inspect
ships |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
| Drone
traps |
- |
± |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
| Drone
flooding |
- |
- |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
| Bait
hives |
a2 |
- |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
a |
a |
a |
a |
a |
a |
| Certify
colonies |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
| Trap
queens |
- |
- |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
| 1 Schedule based on assumptions of available
forage activity. |
| 2 Leave bait hive in place but monitor
once a month. |
E. ONGOING RESEARCH ON AFRICANIZED
BEES BY LABORATORIES
Although the principle research effort on AB is being made by
the ARS Honey Bee Breeding, Genetics, and Physiology Laboratory
in Baton Rouge, a number of other ARS and University laboratories
are also making contributions to the solution of this problem.
This list is by no means intended to be all-inclusive but merely
represent the collective input from the team based on their personal
knowledge.
ARS Laboratories
Baton Rouge, LA
| 1) |
Research
on the basic population and individual differences in bee behavior,
development and response to pesticides between AB and European
bees. |
| * 3a., 3b., 3c. were judged by the team
as equal in priority. |
| **4a and 4b. were
judged by the team us equal in priority. |
| 2) |
Evaluation and
improvement of AB identification methods including morphometrics
of F1 workers. |
| 3) |
Conduct genetic
studies to determine modes of inheritance, heritability and phenotypic
and gentic correlations. |
| 4) |
Commercial management
studies to maintain European bees in an AB area. |
| 5) |
Basic studies
on estimating and reducing feral AB populations and defining
an "acceptable" level of Africanization for commercial
beekeeping stocks. |
Tucson, AZ
| 1) |
Research
on identification of AB. Methods being evaluated include possible
differences in wingbeat frequency between AB and European bees
and also possible differences in release rate of sting pheromones. |
| 2) |
The
use of radar for locating drone congregating areas to increase
efficiency of drone trapping. |
| 3) |
Evaluate the pollination
efficiency of AB in Mexico and to modify management methods needed
to use AB for pollination. |
| 4) |
Develop low-cost
and low-maintenance bait hives for attracting AB swarms using
pheromones. |
Madison, WI
| 1) |
Maintain
a closed population (CP) and evaluate the computer model. The
CP is a means for storing honey bee germ plasm and is currently
a gene pool for several studies on AB and a source of AB free
stock. |
| 2) |
Develop
a computer model for predicting honey and wax production from
one to five years in advance to evaluate impact of AB. |
| 3) |
DNA will be enzymatically
digested and the fragments cloned for identification of honey
bee gene sequences. Stress proteins will be identified for use
in quantifying the effects of stress inducers such as disease,
parasites, pesticides and environment. DNA probes will also be
developed for identifying AB. |
| 4) |
Determine the
optimal levels (and ranges) of hive temperature, humidity and
carbon dioxide for the survival of honey bee colonies. Optimizing
these factors will contribute substantially to management objectives
for commercial beekeeping with European and AB. |
Beltsville, MD
| 1) |
Research on developing
new methods and improving existing methods for the identification
of AB. Specifically studies on the use of cuticular hydrocarbons,
mitochondrial DNA, and the use of an image analyzer are being
evaluated for the identification of AB. |
| 2) |
Studies on the
use of chitin inhibitors for controlling brood rearing are being
conducted. Dosage levels, method of feeding chitin inhibitors
and the resultant period of no brood rearing need to be evaluated
as well as the subsequent fate of the colony. |
Logan, UT
| 1) |
Research and development
of alternate pollinators to be used as possible replacement if
Africanization results in a shortage of honey bee colonies for
pollination. Specifically, California relies on honey bee pollination
for alfalfa seed production, other pollinators such as Osmia
sanrafaelae and Chalicodoma mucorea are being evaluated
for this purpose. |
Non-USDA Research on Africanized
Bees
University of California, Berkeley
(Dr. H. Daley)
| 1) |
Improving morphometric
methods for identification of AB workers. |
| 2) |
Developing a morphometric
method for identification of AB drones. |
University of California, Berkeley
(Dr. G. Hall)
| 1) |
Research on the
use of DNA probes for the identification of AB. |
University of Georgia, Athens
(Dr. A. Dietz)
| 1) |
Study on distribution
of AB in Argentina completed. Manuscripts in preparation. |
| 2) |
Proposal submitted
for short-term project in Kenya on the feasibility of using A.
m. monticola as a biological barrier against A. m. scutellata. |
University of Minnesota, St.
Paul
(Dr. B. Furgala)
| 1) |
Development of
hemolymph protein analysis system for identification of AB. |
University of Kansas, Lawrence
(Dr. 0. R. Taylor)
| 1) |
Selection of two
bee stocks selected for the time which drone mating flights occur,
one for early and the other for late flights. |
| 2) |
Environmental
tolerance (elevation) of AB in Costa Rica. |
Smithsonian Institute, Washington,
DC
(Dr. D. Roubik)
| 1) |
Impact of AB on
native pollinators in Panama. |
F. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INSTITUTING
A BARRIER AGAINST THE SPREAD OF AFRICANIZED BEES
No single approach to an Africanized bee barrier zone has much
chance of success. Rather, it is necessary to use a series of
actions, each appropriate to a portion of the annual cycle of
changing honey bee activities and to one or more of several biological
processes leading to Africanization.
The following actions collectively provide tools for an integrated
system having a high likelihood of both preventing Africanization
in the BRZ and of preventing Africanized bees from passing through
the zone. These actions are based on the following known processes
of Africanization:
| a) |
human assisted
movement |
| b) |
prime swarms |
| c) |
queen parasitism
of established colonies |
| d) |
drone parasitism
of established colonies |
| e) |
absconding swarms |
| f) |
mating superiority
founded in a numerically greater production of reproductives |
1) Establish a Bee Regulated
Zone and Institute a Quarantine
In order to institute actions in a barrier zone, a bee regulated
zone will have to be designated to control bees and beekeeping.
This must include locating and registering all managed colonies.
The BRZ must be wide enough so that an Africanized swarm
would not likely cross
this area undetected. Since absconding swarms are likely to travel
many miles, a zone 1660 kilometers wide and extending from coast
to coast across the narrowest part of Mexico will be required.
A quarantine on the Africanized side of the zone will be necessary
to prevent human assisted movement of Africanized bees in or
out of the regulated zone. (Relates to Africanization processes
a, b, c, d, e, f).
2. Organize a Project Team
A team structured according
to classic regulatory project protocols is fundamental to the
development and maintenance of a barrier zone. In addition to
organizing and conducting routine project activities and activities
identified in other sections of this document, the team must
have additional special duties. These special duties involve
interacting with the general public in the zone and teaching
members of the local apiculture community management of bees
to conform to project needs. Also, the team will institute a
bounty system to encourage the reporting of swarms and feral
colonies. Upon receiving of a report, the team will verify the
existence of the reported bees, sample them, and pay the bounty.
The bounty must be kept low enough to discourage people from
rearing or stealing bees in an attempt to defraud the program.
(Relates to Africanization processes a, b, and e).
3. Retain Beekeeping
It will be vital to the success
of the project to retain beekeeping in the regulated zone for
social as well as biological reasons. These managed colonies
will provide a reservoir of desirable drones that will impact
the feral population. All rustic hives will have to be replaced
by modern movable-frame equipment so that drone production and
queen certification can be faciliated. Beekeepers must be supplied
with drone foundation prior to seasonal colony buildup. They
must be instructed in the placement and quantity of drone comb
desired. The colonies must be maintained with European queens
so that European drones are produced (see also F.7). The tendency
of Africanized drones to migrate to European colonies (drone
parasitism) will have an important effect on desirable drone
production. Steps must be taken to limit the entry of Africanized
drones into managed colonies. Registration of all managed colonies
in the regulated area will facilitate this endeavor. (Relates
to Africaitization processes a, d and f).
4. Establish Drone Traps
Within the regulated zone,
establish "state-of-the-art" drone traps with pheromone
lures on a 1.5 km grid. These dimensions can be adjusted as more
information is gained on drone flight patterns in the area including
the location of leks (drone congregation areas). (Relates to
Africanization processes d and f).
5. Drone Flooding
The trapping of Africanized
drones in an area (F.4) must be alternated with the release of
desirable drones (F.3). A schedule of several days of trapping
all free-flying drones, while desirable drones are confined to
colonies, followed by several days with no trapping and free
flight allowed from European colonies, must be established. This
schedule could be rotated over 2-3 small regions, utilizing the
same traps and personnel in all regions. Trapping needs to be
done only during periods of significant local drone production.
(Relates to Africanization processes
d and f).
6. Establish Bait Hives
One way to reduce the spread
of Africanized bees across the barrier zone is to establish bait
hives to collect and destroy Africanized swarms. Where access
is available, the hives should be closely spaced, especially
on the Africanized bee side of the barrier, five hives per square
kilometer is recommended. However, in parts of the zone having
restricted aceess, many of these hives will he restricted to
roadside placement. In this case, ten evenly spaced hives per
linear kilometer is recommended. Until bait hives are developed
that will kill swarms automatically, these hives will need to
be inspected biweekly during the swarming season. (Relates to
Africanization process b and e).
7. Certify Colonies
Honey bee queens frequently live only a few months in the tropics.
Also, Africanized queens often replace European queens in European
colonies. Therefore, at approximately 4-month intervals, all
managed colonies must he inspected for possible Africanization
and recertified. This certification could be facilitated
by the exclusive use of marked European queens. (Relates to Africanization
processes a and c).
8. Collect Composite Samples
During the season of nectar availability, it is important to
survey for the presence of new AB arrivals in the regulated zone.
Monthly composite samples of foraging workers collected on flowers
at 0.5 km grid intervals will supply information on their presence.
When samples containing AB are found, bee-lining and other techniques
can be used to find the source of Africanized foragers so that
it can be destroyed. (Relates to Africanization processes a,
b, c, e).
9. Inspect Ships
All ships leaving ports in Africanized areas must be inspected
immediately upon arrival in ports within or beyond the regulated
area. In addition, ships docking in the Yucatan, a probable heavily
infested area, will be inspected just prior to departure. Visual
inspection could be aided by new technology such as detection
of swarms by directional antennae (sound). Also, if bees will
fly while on a ship underway, feeding stations can be used to
discover and destroy "hitchhiking" swarms. (Related
to Africanization processes a, b, e.)
10. Trap Queens
In each apiary one colony should
be maintained as an attractant for Africanized queens. To achieve
attractiveness, the queen in this colony will be caged, simulating
queenlessness. Because the queen is caged, the colony must receive
frequent additions of brood or adult worker bees. The hive should
be fitted with a trap to collect parasitizing
Africanized queens. (Relates to Africanized process c)
11. Survey Using Bait Stations
During dearth periods, when
foraging is possible (no rain), bait stations should be set up
to survey bee populations. Individual foragers will be collected
at such stations and identified. This system will be used alternatively
with roadside sampling (F.8), which is dependent on natural flora.
(Relates to Africanized processes a, b, c, e.)
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